Hazel Bateman, James Brownlow, Ben Culbert, Charles Chu, Christine Eckert, Bin Fu and Susan Thorp

SUMMARY

We investigate how the decision to take out a residential mortgage is interrelated with engagement with superannuation, measured by changes in superannuation contributions and interactions with service providers (the mortgage provider and the super fund). We do so by analysing matched samples of superannuation fund members who do and do not take out mortgages in calendar year 2014. We measure the timing and size of changes in four types of superannuation contributions in the 36 months prior to and following mortgage commencement, and changes in interactions with service providers in the 6 months before and 12 months after mortgage commencement.

We find that the decision to take out a residential mortgage is associated with engagement with superannuation. Super fund members who took out a new residential mortgage in 2014 exhibited changes in their superannuation contribution behaviour before and /or after mortgage commencement (as compared with those who did not take out a mortgage), with the timing and size of these changes differing by mortgage type (owner-occupier or investment), employment status (employee or self-employed) and key demographics (gender, age and income).

Sisi Yang and Katja Hanewald

Abstract: The Chinese government has launched a series of health reforms to establish universal health insurance coverage, particularly for vulnerable groups, including older adults. However, the current public health insurance system is highly fragmented, consisting of different programs with different levels of premiums and benefits. We analyse whether the universal health insurance system increases the life satisfaction of middle-aged and older Chinese people and to what extent the type of health insurance affects the life satisfaction of this group. Our study is based on data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study, a nationally representative longitudinal survey of Chinese aged 45 and above, in 2011, 2013, and 2015. We find that the life satisfaction of middle-aged and older adults does not depend on having any health insurance coverage but varies with the type of health insurance coverage, controlling for potential confounding variables such as health status, occupation, hukou status, education, and other demographic variables. Individuals covered by the most generous program, the Government Medical Insurance, reported a higher life satisfaction. In comparison, individuals covered by the Urban Employee Medical Insurance, the Urban Resident Medical Insurance, and the New Rural Cooperative Scheme reported a lower life satisfaction by 0.155, 0.106, and 0.112 standard deviations, respectively. Our results suggest that establishing a more equitable health insurance system should be the next step in health reforms in China.

Keywords: Life satisfaction, Health insurance, Older adults, Health, China

Kevin Krahe, Michael Sherris, Andrés M. Villegas and Jonathan Ziveyi

Abstract: We develop and assess a value-based longevity index that closely tracks the value of longevity-linked liabilities with the potential to signicantly lower the costs and improve the efficiency of index-based longevity hedging techniques relative to standard mortality rate indices, currently referenced in financial markets. As the US is one of the largest countries in terms of market potential for such an index, we use US economic and population data to demonstrate that hedging with our proposed index generates a material reduction in basis risk relative to indices based purely on mortality rates. This is aided by the use of a multi-population continuous-time affine mortality model and a dynamic Nelson-Siegel model for interest rates. We allow both interest rate and ination risks to impact the value of longevity-linked liabilities in our longevity risk hedging. We also bridge the gap between continuous-time and discrete-time multi-population mortality models and show that the continuous-time models are as effective in hedging liabilities as the often used discrete-time models, while being more familiar to nancial market participants.

Keywords: Value-based longevity index, longevity risk, interest rate risk, inflation risk, longevity basis risk, longevity hedging

Zhiping Huang, Michael Sherris, Andrés M Villegas and Jonathan Ziveyi

Abstract: This paper assesses and compares multi-factor continuous time ane mortality models applied to age-cohort mortality curves that are well suited for theoretical and practical application in nance and insurance. Models based on Gaussian distributed mortality rates, as well as the Cox-Ingersoll-Ross (CIR) process allowing for Gamma distributed mortality rates, are compared, also quantifying the probability of negative rates in the Gaussian models. In particular, we introduce the Gaussian Arbitrage-Free Nelson-Siegel (AFNS) mortality model incorporating level, slope and curvature factors. The models have appealing features including ecient estimation and computation. We estimate models using age-cohort data to capture cohort eects more eectively and in order to explain the variability in cohort mortality curves in the continuous time framework. The models allow for Poisson variation in the model estimation using the Kalman lter. The ane mortality models facilitate the derivation of closed-form survivor curves allowing for ecient valuation of mortality-linked claims. The models can also incorporate factor dependence allowing for age-dependence in the mortality curves. Importantly we show that the Gaussian independent factor AFNS model performs very well in explaining and forecasting cohort mortality.

Keywords: mortality models, continuous time, cohort curve, affine rates, Kalman filter

Shuanglan Li, Héloïse Labit Hardy, Michael Sherris, Andrés M. Villegas

Abstract: Pooled annuity products, where the participants share systematic and idiosyncratic mortality risks as well as investment returns and risk, provide an attractive and effective alternative to traditional guaranteed life annuity products. While longevity risk sharing in pooled annuities has received recent attention, incorporating investment risk beyond fixed interest returns is relatively unexplored. Incorporating equity investments has the potential to increase expected annuity payments at the expense of higher variability. We propose and assess a strategy for incorporating equity investments along with managed-volatility for pooled annuity funds. We show how the managed volatility strategy improves investment performance, while reducing pooled annuity income volatility and downside risk, as well as an investment strategy that reduces exposure to investment risk over time. We quantify the impact of pool size when equity investments are included, showing how these products are viable with relatively small pool sizes.

Keywords: pooled annuity, equity investment, managed volatility, longevity risk 

Michael Sherris and Pengyu Wei

Abstract: This paper proposes a multi-state model of both functional disability and health status in the presence of systematic trend and uncertainty. We classify each individual observation along two dimensions: health status (other than disability) and disability and use the multi-state latent factor intensity (MLFI) model to estimate the transitions rates. The model is then used to calculate (healthy) life expectancy and price a variety of insurance products. We illustrate the importance of various factors and quantify the potential losses from model misspecification. Our results suggest that insurers should pay great attention to health status, trend, and systematic uncertainty in disability/mortality modeling and insurance pricing. We also find that integrating LTC insurance with life annuity can help to reduce the systematic uncertainties.

Keywords: functional disability; health status; trend; systematic uncertainty

Rafal Chomik and John Piggott

Demographic and technological changes are two megatrends set to transform labour markets around the world. These shifts are already under way and are expected to accelerate, particularly in East and South East Asia, which is home to the world’s oldest and fastest ageing societies and a region with an enviable pace of economic development.

The literature on the nature and impacts of each trend is vast, but the study of the interactions between them is often incidental and rarely in the Asian setting. Yet demography, technology, structural change and economic development are all related. Rapid economic development seen in many parts of Asia is the product of beneficial demographic trends as well as technological catch-up to the production productivity frontier. And technological advancements in medicine have precipitated the increasing levels of life expectancy seen around the world. While more years in good health raise prospects of working for longer, technological and structural change risk leaving older cohorts behind.

Keywords: Asia, labour market, population ageing, technology advances

George Smyrnis, Hazel Bateman, Isabella Dobrescu, Benjamin R Newell, and Susan Thorp

This industry report investigates the impact of retirement income projections on superannuation contributions, investment choices and engagement from fund members.

Executive Summary:
Australian workers rely on information from their superannuation funds to ascertain if they are saving enough for retirement. Until recently, most funds gave members only their current balance to go on, leaving to the member the tough problem of translating that balance into a future lump sum or income stream. In 2013, Cbus sent approximately 20,000 members a retirement income estimate (RIE), along with their current balance, for the first time. The goal of the RIE trial was to help members grasp the implications of their current superannuation savings pattern for their retirement wellbeing.
The impact of this new message on members’ contributions, engagement, and investment choices was remarkable. We measure this impact by comparing carefully matched groups of Cbus members – a group who received the estimate and an (observationally) identical group who did not. The matched sample groups each include 15,273 Cbus members. Our analysis shows what members did up to end-June 2014, after receiving the RIE for the first time in September 2013.  This method allows us to draw inferences about the causal effect of the new communication.

Katja Hanewald, Ruo Jia and Zining Liu

Abstract: This paper studies income inequality in old age and its development over the life cycle. We develop a theoretical framework and a new empirical method to show that income is more unequally distributed in old age than in working age. We combine the regression-based inequality decomposition method and the three-step mediating effect test to analyze the transmission of income inequality from initial socioeconomic differences to income inequality in old age. Our study is based on a panel of over 4,000 old households from the China Health and Nutrition Survey
during 1991-2015. We find that the urban-rural gap and educational inequality are the primary causes of old-age income inequality. The effect of the urban-rural gap is partially mediated by educational inequality. Inequality accumulates with age and is reinforced in old age by the Chinese public pension system, which is fragmented by occupational sector.

Keywords: Inequality; Decomposition; Urban-rural gap; Pensions; China

Rafal Chomik, Alison Williams, and Marian Baird

Older Australians are a vital part of the workforce and economy. Almost 20% of Australian workers are over the age of 55 and as the population ages, this proportion will continue to rise.

Mature workers face unique challenges. Many experience age discrimination in the workplace or when looking for work. This is occurring despite a lack of evidence that older workers are less productive.

Mature workers often juggle work and caring responsibilities, which are less well recognised than the typical caring role faced by younger workers.

This fact sheet outlines the national and state legislation that protects mature workers from discrimination and upholds their right to seek flexible work arrangements. It also addresses the way workplace health and safety laws can be uniquely relevant to older Australians.

George Smyrnis, Hazel Bateman, Isabella Dobrescu, Ben Newell and Susan Thorp.

Abstract: The implications of current balance information for retirement provision are considerably difficult to grasp or anticipate. We study how balance and/or income projections motivate the voluntary savings intentions of pension plan participants over a sequence of ten choices. To this effect, we collect savings intentions from 1,615 respondents aged 25-57 years via an online experimental survey that compares four different formats for retirement account information. The formats are (i) current balance; (ii) current balance and projected retirement balance; (iii) current balance and projected retirement income; and (iv) current balance, projected retirement balance and retirement income. Regardless of information format, merely inviting plan participants to top up their retirement account prompts substantial increases in savings, especially among older respondents. At the first choice round, the income projection triggers marginally more voluntary saving intentions than the lump sum projection alone. However at both the first choice and over sequential choices, the combination of balance and income projections is what matters most. Furthermore, even though older respondents save at a higher level across all treatments, younger respondents are more sensitive to income balance projections than the older survey respondents.

Joanne Kaa Earl, Mydair Hunter and Hazel Bateman

Abstract:Objectives: Downsizing is the term used to describe the move to a smaller dwelling and the decumulation of possessions, often taking place at older age. Two psychological theories: Selection, Optimisation and Compensation (SOC) and Time Perspective (TP); were applied to explain post-downsizing perspectives.

Method: Participants were community dwelling older adults (N = 352) aged 55 years and over who downsized during the preceding five years. An online survey was used to collect data about factors determining decision-making as well as psychological aspects of the downsizing experience including regret, retirement adjustment, satisfaction with life, stress, and distress.

Results: In general only a small proportion (17.6%) of participants indicated regret about moving. Consistent with the SOC theory younger people were more highly represented in the group expressing regret. Lower levels of satisfaction with the move were associated with a Past Negative Time Perspective, lower levels of life satisfaction and higher levels of stress and psychological distress. The top five factors for downsizing included: house was too big; to be closer to family; lifestyle preferences; yard too hard to manage; and alleviation of financial strain.

Conclusion: Whilst most people do not express regret with the move, it can be a stressful process. Some factors associated with lower levels of satisfaction such as Past Negative Time Perspective may be more difficult to change than others. Understanding the post-downsizing experience of others can help better prepare people before they move to anticipate responses and possibly contribute to better retirement adjustment.

Keywords: Downsizing, Time Perspective, Regret, Older adults

Mengyi Xu, Michael Sherris and Adam W. Shao

The transition from defined benefit to defined contribution (DC) pension schemes has increased the interest in target annuitization funds that aim to fund a minimum level of retirement income. Prior literature has studied the optimal investment strategies for DC funds that provide minimum guarantees, but far less attention has been given to portfolio insurance strategies, especially for target annuitization funds. We evaluate the performance of option-based and constant proportion portfolio insurance strategies for a DC fund that targets a minimum level of inflation-protected annuity income at retirement. We show how the portfolio allocation to an equity fund varies depending on the member’s age upon joining the fund, displaying a downward trend through time for members joining the fund before ages in the mid-30s. We demonstrate how both portfolio insurance strategies provide strong protection against downside equity risk in financing a minimum level of retirement income. The option-based strategy often leads to higher accumulated savings at retirement and is also shown to provide a more robust level of protection when equity markets are more volatile and when contributions to the pension fund are lower.

Keywords: portfolio insurance strategies, defined contribution, pension risk management, target annuitization fund

Anca-Stefania Jijiie, Jennifer Alonso-García and Séverine Arnold (-Gaille) 

Abstract: Many OECD countries have addressed the issue of increased longevity by mainly increasing the retirement age. However, this kind of reforms may lead to substantial transfers from those with shorter lifespans to those that will live longer than the average, as they do not necessarily take into account the socio-economic differences in mortality. The contribution of our paper is therefore twofold. Firstly, we illustrate how both a Defined Benefit and a Notional Defined Contribution Pay-As-You-Go scheme can put the lower social economic classes at a disadvantage, when compared to the actuarially fair pensions. In contrast to that, higher classes experience a gain. This is due to the fact that mortality rates per socio-economic class are not considered by either scheme. Consequently, we propose a model that determines the parameters for each scheme and class which would render the pensions fairer even when no socio-economic mortality differences are considered.

Keywords: retirement age, pay-as-you-go, public pensions, adequacy, fairness, class-specific parameters

Rafal Chomik, John Piggott, and Sophie Yan

This policy brief was prepared for the T20 Task Force on Aging Population and its Economic Impact + Immigration.

Abstract: Population ageing poses unique challenges for social security systems. Developed countries, with well-established structures, will face increasing age-related spending. They will require further reforms that balance spending cuts against core promises across generations. Most emerging economies, on the other hand, lack comprehensive social security yet are ageing rapidly. They must establish comprehensive retirement income support structures, universal health services, and publicly supported long term care in a rapidly changing macro-demographic environment.

This policy brief, while bringing a broad perspective to these challenges, focuses its policy analysis on retirement income, the first frontier in reforming social security systems in an ageing world. In line with the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals, our key policy recommendation is that future social security reforms be re-directed towards a greater emphasis on non-contributory pension programs that can provide a much-needed safety net for older people. These will be the most important structures to deliver the SDGs, especially for emerging economies.

More details on CEPAR's involvement in the Task Force 10: Aging Population and its Economic Impact + Immigration can be found on CEPAR's newsroom: 

• CEPAR Director to co-chair T20 Task Force on Aging Population
• Aging populations threaten G20 fiscal sustainability, says taskforce

Yuanyuan Deng and Hugo Benítez-Silva

Abstract: Using survey and administrative data from the Medicare Current Beneficiary Survey, we analyze the effect of labor supply, health insurance coverage, and delays in Medicare enrollment on Medicare costs. We use our empirical findings to compute the average aggregate yearly savings linked to individuals working and insurance coverage that translates into Medicare being a secondary payer, at around $5.37 billion per year in the 1999-2010 period. We also quantify average aggregate yearly savings of another $10.17 billion per year, in the same time period, resulting from the delays in enrollment into the Medicare system.

Keywords: Medicare Costs, Labor Supply, Medicare Secondary Payer Effect, Delays in Medicare Enrollment

Sarah Kaakai, Héloïse Labit Hardy, Séverine Arnold (-Gaille) and Nicole El Karoui

A growing number of studies indicate a widening of socioeconomic inequalities in mortality over the past decades. It has therefore become crucially important to understand the impact of heterogeneity and its evolution on the future mortality of heterogeneous populations. In particular, recent developments in multi-population mortality have raised a number of questions, among which is the issue of evaluating cause-of-death reduction targets set by national and international institutions in the presence of heterogeneity. The aim of this paper is to show how the study of the population data and the population dynamics framework contribute to addressing these issues, by providing a new viewpoint on the evolution of aggregate mortality indicators in the presence of heterogeneity. Our findings rely on two unique datasets on the English population and cause-specific number of deaths by socioeconomic circumstances, over the period 1981-2015. The analysis of the data first highlights the complexity of recent demographic developments, characterized by significant composition changes in the population, with considerable variations according to the age class or cohort, along with a widening of socioeconomic inequalities. We then introduce a dynamic framework for studying the impact of composition changes on the mortality of the global population. In particular, we are interested in quantifying the impacts of cause-of-death mortality reduction in comparison with changes of composition in a heterogeneous population. We show how a cause of death reduction could be compensated for in the presence of heterogeneity, which could lead to misinterpretations when assessing public policies impacts and/or for the forecasting of future trends.

Keywords: Population Dynamics, Deprivation, Heterogeneity, Cause-of-Death Mortality, Cohort Effect